The New Mexico Rare Arthropod Resource

This species is restricted to wetlands habitats in otherwise arid areas of southern Arizona, southern New Mexico, and central Mexico (Scott 1986, Opler and Wright 1999). This species is confined to the few remaining upland marshes and cienegas, where the sole larval host plant, Knotgrass (Paspalum distichum), can be found (Opler and Wright 1999, Glassberg 2001, Lotts and Naberhaus 2021, Bailowitz and Brock 2022, Cary and Toliver 2024). It is additionally reported that the plants that females choose to lay eggs on, are nearly always fully submerged in water at the base (Bailowitz and Brock 2022). 

Adults of this species appear to be double brooded, with one brood in the spring and then a more abundant brood in the summer. Records extend from April to mid October, with the first flight generally happening between May and June and the second from August to October (Opler and Wright 1999, Glassberg 2001, Lotts and Naberhaus 2021, Bailowitz and Brock 2022, Cary and Toliver 2024). During flight, adults of this species nectar at Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) as well as at Spanish Needles (Bidens spp.) and other low growing flowers (Opler and Wright 1999, Lotts and Naberhaus 2021, Bailowitz and Brock 2022). Adults of this species are apparently exceptionally weak fliers and as a result rarely leave their marshy habitats (Scott 1986, Opler and Wright 1999, Cary and Toliver 2024). During flight, males can be seen patrolling weakly over flowers and grasses at springs, in the morning hours (Scott 1986, Lotts and Naberhaus 2021, Cary and Toliver 2024). The early life history stages of this species have not been reported, as it is difficult to access them in marshy areas; however, overwintering probably occurs as larvae within a nest on the host plant, but more research is needed on the life history of this species (Opler and Wright 1999, Glassberg 2001, Bailowitz and Brock 2022). 

There few conservation actions in place for this species. This species underwent a NatureServe conservation assessment in 2019 and was found to be globally vulnerable to extinction (NatureServe 2024). Although the species was found to be critically imperiled in the United States (NatureServe 2024). This species is also on the United States Forest Services regional list of sensitive species (USFS 2021) and was recommended as a conservation priority in a Nature Conservancy Report on the Sonoran desert ecosystem (Marshall et al. 2000).

Colonies and habitats of this species should be conserved wherever they are found. Protection from draining of wetlands and capping springs is also needed (Lotts and Naberhaus 2021). While light cattle grazing may be okay for this species, heavy grazing can kill this species and destroy the habitats. As a result, care should be taken to limit grazing in Sunrise Skipper habitats. Habitat restoration may also be required and should focus on enlarging existing patches of habitat. Larger habitat areas will be more resistant to threats and can help combat inbreeding depression.

Research is needed for this species. Almost nothing is known of the populations in Mexico and their status. The population size and trend for this species are also not known although anecdotally many sources report it as declining. Additionally, we know very little about this species life history or direct threats. Filling these gaps in our knowledge will be crucial for any conservation strategy. This species is one of only two members of its genera which makes it especially taxonomically valuable for conservation as well (Pelham 2024). 

This species is tied very closely to cienegas and upland marshes in otherwise xeric areas (Bailowitz and Brock 2022, Cary and Toliver 2024). These habitats have been in steady decline and are threatened across the range of the species. For example, from the 1780s to the 1980s, an estimated 36% of the wetlands in Arizona were lost (Dahl 1999), largely due to increased demand for water from agriculture, urbanization, and industry (Fretwell et al. 1996). Surface and groundwater resources are important of this species, and there are no regulations on groundwater use in the state of Arizona (Ferris and Porter 2021). As such, in rural areas, which cover 80% of the state, there is no limit on the number of new wells drilled, or on the amount of water that can be pumped from a well (Holmes 2022). This unmanaged pumping has led to wells going dry, ground fissures, and land subsistence. Similarly, in Mexico, unsustainable agricultural practices and the increased water demands of expanding urbanization, have contributed to depletion of underground aquifers with severe impacts the integrity and availability of freshwater habitats. For example, across the arid and semi-arid lands of northern Mexico, Contreras-Balderas & Lozano-Vilano (1993) identified 92 springs and 2,500 linear km of river habitat that completely dried, due to overuse by agriculture and livestock production. In addition to water overuse, climate change will likely further stress the water resources this species depends on. The southwestern United States is forecast to continue getting hotter and drier as the climate warms. This will increase the likelihood that the springs and marshes this species relies on will dry out, potentially leading to steady declines in this species population and in the amount of habitat available (NatureServe 2024). 

Overgrazing may also be a threat, as the sole host plant can only tolerate very light grazing, and is easily uprooted and killed (Carr 2010, USFS 2021, NatureServe 2024). Draining of wetlands, capping of springs, and habitat loss due to agriculture have also caused a large amount of habitat loss for this species in the past, leading to extirpations in several localities (Hendrickson and Minckley 1984, Marshall et al. 2004, USFS 2021, NatureServe 2024). 

This species is now found on the small scattered remnants of its' former habitat. Colonies are extremely localized and rare and neighboring colonies are isolated by expanses of inhospitable deserts (Hendrickson and Minckley 1984, Opler and Wright 1999, Glassberg 2001, Brock and Kaufman 2003, Marshall et al. 2004, Bailowitz and Brock 2022). This issue is exacerbated by the fact that this butterfly is an extremely weak flier and would have trouble reaching even a relatively close colony (Scott 1986, Opler and Wright 1999, Cary and Toliver 2024). Due to this isolation of small colonies, inbreeding depression may be another threat to the species (Hedrick et al. 1994, Lynch et al. 1995, Saccheri et al. 1998, Nieminen et al. 2001, Nonaka et al. 2018). 

Flooding, either natural or unnatural, poses an additional threat to the species, as it can destroy host plants and kill larvae or eggs (USFS 2021, NatureServe 2024). Lastly, having a single host plant increases extinction risk, as any threats reducing host plant populations, will also result in population declines for this butterfly. In addition, having a single host plant also puts taxa at higher risk of phenological mismatch, especially if they have a single brood (Kotiaho et al. 2005, Palash et al. 2022, Forister et al. 2023, Patterson et al. 2019, USFS 2023).

• Forister, M.L., Halsch, C.A., Nice, C.C., Fordyce, J.A., Dilts, T.E., Oliver, J.C., Prudic, K.L., Shapiro, A.M., Wilson, J.K. and Glassberg, J. . 2021. Fewer butterflies seen by community scientists across the warming and drying landscapes of the American West. Science 371: (1042-1045).
• Fretwell, J.D., Williams, L.S. and Redman, P.J.. 1996. National Water Summary on Wetland Resources. United States Geological Survey (USGS), US Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. .
• Pelham, J.P.. 2023. A catalogue of the butterflies of the United States and Canada. Revised 15 February 2023. http://butterfliesofamerica.com/US-Can-Cat.htm
• Forister, M.L., McCall, A.C., Sanders, N.J., Fordyce, J.A., Thorne, J.H., O’Brien, J., Waetjen, D.P. and Shapiro, A.M.. 2010. Compounded effects of climate change and habitat alteration shift patterns of butterfly diversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 107: (2088-2092).
• sRedList. 2023. sRedList Platform - a tool to support Red List assessments (Version 1.1). LifeWatch ERIC. https://doi.org/10.48372/DSKB-JE13
• NatureServe. 2024. NatureServe Network Biodiversity Location Data accessed through NatureServe Explorer [web application]. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia.. 2024. https://explorer.natureserve.org/
• Trigo, J.R.. 2000. The chemistry of antipredator defense by secondary compounds in Neotropical Lepidoptera: Facts, Perspectives and caveats. Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society 11: (551-561). https://doi.org/10.1590/s0103-50532000000600002
• Marshall, R.M., Anderson, S., Batcher, M., Comer, P., Cornelius, S., Cox, R., Gondor, A., Gori, D., Humke, J., Paredes Aguilar, R., Parra, I.E, and Schwartz, S.. 2000. An ecological analysis of conservation priorities in the Sonoran Desert ecoregion. The Nature Conservancy Arizona Chapter, Sonoran Institute, and Instituto del Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo Sustentable del Estado de Sonora with support from Department of Defense Legacy Program, Agency and Institutional partners: (146).
• Marshall, R.M., Turner, D., Gondor, A., Gori, D., Enquist, C., Luna, G., Parades Aguilar,R., Anderson, S. Schwartz, S., Watts, C., Lopez, E. and Comer, P.. 2004. An ecological analysis of conservation priorities in the Apache Highlands ecoregion. Nature Conservancy of Arizona, Instituto del Medio Ambiente y el Desarrollo Sustainable del Estado de Sonora, agency and institutional partners: (152).
• Carr, C.. 2021. Plant fact sheet for Knotgrass (Paspalum distichum). USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, James E. “Bud” Smith Plant Materials Center. Knox City, TX.
• US Forest Service. 2021. Federally Threatened, Endangered and Regional Forister's Sensitive Species on the Coronado National Forest. US Forest Service. https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/fseprd1133290.pdf
• Holmes, C.. 2022. Unregulated Groundwater use threatens rural Arizona’s future. Cronkite News , Phoenix, AZ . https://cronkitenews.azpbs.org/2022/05/11/arizona-groundwater-laws-threaten-rural-communities-future/#:~:text=Arizona%20has%20no%20regulation%20of,Act%2C%20enacted%2042%20years%20ago
• Ferris, K. and Porter, S.. 2021. The Myth of Safe-Yield: Pursuing the Goal of Safe-Yield Isn’t Saving Our Groundwater. Kyle Center for Water Policy at Morrison Institute, Arizona State University. https://morrisoninstitute.asu.edu/sites/default/files/the_myth_of_safe-yield_0.pdf
• Forister, M.L., Grames, E.M., Halsch, C.A., Burls, K.J., Carroll, C.F., Bell, K.L., Jahner, J.P., Bradfod, T., Zhang, J., Cong, Q., Grishin, N.V., Glassberg, K., Shapiro, A.M. and Riecke. T.V.. 2023. Assessing risk for butterflies in the context of climate change, demographic uncertainty, and heterogenous data sources. Ecological Monographs 93: (e1584).
• Cary, S.J. and Toliver, M.E. . 2024. Butterflies of New Mexico.. Pajarito Environmental Education Center (PEEC). https://peecnature.org/butterflies-of-new-mexico/
• Lotts, K. and Naberhaus, T.. 2023. Butterflies and Moths of North America. 2023: (Dataset for Amblyscirtes elissa).
• SCAN. 2023. Symbiota Collections of Arthropods Network. 2023. https://scan-bugs.org/portal/
• Bailowitz, R. and Brock, J. . 2022. Southeastern Arizona Butterflies. Wheatmark Publishing Company, Tucson .
• Cook, B.I., Ault, T.R. and Smerdon, J.E.. 2015. Unprecedented 21st century drought risk in the American Southwest and Central Plains.. Science Advances 1. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400082
• Cook, E.R., Seager, R., Heim, R.R., Vose, R.S., Herweijer, C. and Woodhouse, C.. 2009. Megadroughts in North America: Placing IPCC projections of hydroclimatic change in a long‐term paleoclimate context.. Journal of Quaternary Science 25: (48-61). https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1303
• Palash, A., Paul, S., Resha, S. K. & Khan, M. K.. 2022. Body size and diet breadth drive local extinction risk in butterflies. Heliyon 8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10290
• GBIF.org . 2024. GBIF Occurrence Download. 2024. https://doi.org/10.15468/dl.82mzt2
• Kotiaho, J. S., Kaitala, V., Komonen, A. and Päivinen, J.. 2005. Predicting the risk of extinction from shared ecological characteristics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102: (1963-1967). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0406718102
• Brock, J.P. and Kaufman, K. . 2003. Kaufman Field Guide to Butterflies of North America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Singapore .
• Bender, D. J., C. H. Flather, K. R. Wilson, and G. C. Reese.. 2005. Regional data to support biodiversity assessments: terrestrial vertebrate and butterfly data from the Southwest.. US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station., Fort Collins, CO : (42p).
• Contreras-Balderas, S. and Lozano-Vilano, M.L.. 1994. Water, endangered fishes, and development perspectives in arid lands of Mexico. Conservation Biology 8: (379-387).
• Opler, P.A. and Wright, A.B.. 1999. A Field Guide to Western Butterflies. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, Massachusetts : (540).
• Scott, J.A.. 1986. The Butterflies of North America, A Natural History and Field Guide. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California : (583).
• ITIS. 2021. Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS). https://www.itis.gov/
• Dahl, T. E.. 1990. Wetlands losses in the United States, 1780's to1980's. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. .